Product Code Database
Veliky Novgorod ( ; , ; ), (2025). 9781843832140, Boydell Press. ISBN 9781843832140 also known simply as Novgorod (Новгород), is the largest city and administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It is one of the oldest cities in Russia, The Archaeology of Novgorod, by Valentin L. Yanin, in Ancient Cities, Special Issue, (Scientific American), pp. 120–127, c. 1994. Covers, History, Kremlin of Novgorod, Novgorod Museum of History, preservation dynamics of the soils, and the production of Birch bark documents. being first mentioned in the 9th century. The city lies along the Volkhov River just downstream from its outflow from Lake Ilmen and is situated on the M10 federal highway connecting Moscow and Saint Petersburg. UNESCO recognized Novgorod as a World Heritage Site in 1992. The city has a population of At its peak during the 14th century, the city was the capital of the Novgorod Republic and was one of Europe's largest cities. The "Великий" (Veliky) part was added to the city's name in 1999.
However, chronicles may have attributed the city's existence to this period retrospectively, since the reliably dated archaeological layers of Novgorod date back no earlier than the 930s. Novgorod appeared around the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries Носов Е. Н. Новгород и новгородская округа IX—X вв. в свете новейших археологических данных (к вопросу о возникновении Новгорода) // Новгородский исторический сборник. — 1984. — Вып. 2 (12). — С. 3—38. Янин В. Л. Новгород // Великий Новгород. История и культура IX—XVII веков. Энциклопедический словарь. — СПб.: Нестор-История, 2007. — С. 352. or at the beginning of the 10th century Куза А. В. Новгородская земля // Древнерусские княжества X—XIII вв. — М.: Наука, 1975. — С. 172..
The archaeological excavations in the middle to late 20th century found cultural layers dating back to the late 10th century, the time of the Christianization of Rus' and a century after it was allegedly founded.Valentin Lavrentyevich Ianin and Mark Khaimovich Aleshkovsky. "Proskhozhdeniye Novgoroda: (k postanovke problemy)," Istoriya SSSR 2 (1971): 32-61. Archaeological dating is fairly easy and accurate to within 15–25 years, as the streets were paved with wood, and most of the houses made of wood, allowing dendrochronology.
The Varangian name of the city, Holmgård or Holmgard (Holmgarðr or Holmgarðir), is used in at a yet earlier stage, but the correlation of this reference with the actual city is uncertain.The name Holmgard is a Norse toponymy meaning Islet town or Islet grad, and there are various explanations for why they gave this name. According to Rydzevskaya, the Norse name is derived from the Slavic Holmgrad which means "town on a hill" and may allude to the "old town" preceding the "new town", or Novgorod. Originally, Holmgård referred to the stronghold, now only to the south of the center of the present-day city, Rurikovo Gorodische (named in comparatively modern times after the Varangian chieftain Rurik, who supposedly made it his "capital" around 860). Archaeological data suggests that the Gorodishche, the residence of the knyaz (prince), dates from the mid-9th century, whereas the town itself dates only from the end of the 10th century; hence the name Novgorod, "new city", from Old East Slavic новъ and городъ (nov and gorod); the Old Norse term Nýgarðr is a calque of an Old Russian word. First mention of this Norse etymology to the name of the city of Novgorod (and that of other cities within the territory of the then Kievan Rus') occurs in the 10th-century policy manual italic=yes by Byzantine Empire emperor Constantine VII.
Yaroslav the Wise was Prince of Novgorod from 1010 to 1019, while his father, Vladimir the Great, was a prince in Kiev. Yaroslav promulgated the first written code of laws (later incorporated into Russkaya Pravda) among the Eastern Slavs and is said to have granted the city a number of freedoms or privileges, which they often referred to in later centuries as precedents in their relations with other princes. His son, Vladimir of Novgorod, sponsored construction of the great Saint Sophia Cathedral, more accurately translated as the Cathedral of Holy Wisdom, which stands to this day.
The Gotland town of Visby functioned as the leading trading center in the Baltic Sea region before the Hanseatic League. In 1080, Visby merchants established a trading post at Novgorod which they named Gutagard (a.k.a. Gotenhof). Later, in the first half of the 13th century, merchants from northern Germany also established their own trading station in Novgorod, known as the Peterhof.Justyna Wubs-Mrozewicz, Traders, ties and tensions: the interactions of Lübeckers, Overijsslers and Hollanders in Late Medieval Bergen, Uitgeverij Verloren, 2008 p. 111 At about the same time, in 1229, German merchants at Novgorod were granted certain privileges, which made their position more secure.Translation of the grant of privileges to merchants in 1229:
One of the most important local figures in Novgorod was the , or mayor, an official elected by the public assembly (called the ) from among the city's boyars, or aristocracy. The , or "thousandman", originally the head of the town militia but later a commercial and judicial official, was also elected by the . Another important local official was the Archbishop of Novgorod who shared power with the boyars.Michael C. Paul, "Secular Power and the Archbishops of Novgorod Before the Muscovite Conquest". Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 8, no. 2 (Spring 2007): 231-270. Archbishops were elected by the or sortition, and after their election, were sent to the metropolitan for consecration.Michael C. Paul, "Episcopal Election in Novgorod, Russia 1156–1478". Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture 72, No. 2 (June 2003): 251-275.
While a basic outline of the various officials and the can be drawn up, the city-state's exact political constitution remains unknown. The boyars and the archbishop ruled the city together, although where one official's power ended and another's began is uncertain. The prince, although his power was reduced from around the middle of the 12th century, was represented by his , or lieutenant, and still played important roles as a military commander, legislator and jurist. The exact composition of the , too, is uncertain, with some historians, such as Vasily Klyuchevsky, claiming it was democratic in nature, while later scholars, such as Valentin Yanin and Aleksandr Khoroshev, see it as a "sham democracy" controlled by the ruling elite. (2025). 9785981872365, Вектор-История. ISBN 9785981872365
In the 13th century, Novgorod, while not a member of the Hanseatic League, was the easternmost kontor, or entrepôt, of the league, being the source of enormous quantities of luxury (sable, Stoat, fox, marmot) and non-luxury furs (squirrel pelts).Janet Martin, Treasure of the Land of Darkness: the Fur Trade and its Significance for Medieval Russia. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
Throughout the Middle Ages, the city thrived culturally. A large number of birch bark letters have been unearthed in excavations, perhaps suggesting widespread literacy. It was in Novgorod that the Novgorod Codex, the oldest Slavic book written north of Bulgaria, and the oldest inscription in a Finnic language (Birch bark letter no. 292) were unearthed. Some of the most ancient Russian chronicles (Novgorod First Chronicle) were written in the scriptorium of the archbishops who also promoted iconography and patronized church construction. The Novgorod merchant Sadko became a popular hero of Russian folklore.
Novgorod was never conquered by the Mongols during the Mongol invasion of Rus. The Mongol army turned back about from the city, not because of the city's strength, but probably because the Mongol commanders did not want to get bogged down in the marshlands surrounding the city. However, the grand princes of Moscow, who acted as tax collectors for the khans of the Golden Horde, did collect tribute in Novgorod, most notably Yury Danilovich and his brother, Ivan Kalita. In 1259, Golden Horde tax-collectors and census-takers arrived in the city, leading to political disturbances and forcing Alexander Nevsky to punish a number of town officials (he nose amputation) for defying him as Vladimir-Suzdal (soon to be the khan's tax-collector in Russia) and his Mongol overlords. In the 14th century, raids by Novgorod , or ,Janet Martin, “Les Uškujniki de Novgorod: Marchands ou Pirates.” Cahiers du Monde Russe et Sovietique 16 (1975): 5-18. sowed fear as far as Kazan and Astrakhan, assisting Novgorod in wars with the Grand Duchy of Moscow.
During the era of Old Rus' State, Novgorod was a major trade hub at the northern end of both the Volga trade route and the "route from the Varangians to the Greeks" along the Dnieper river system. A vast array of goods were transported along these routes and exchanged with local Novgorod merchants and other traders. The farmers of Gotland retained the Saint Olof trading house well into the 12th century. Later German merchantmen also established tradinghouses in Novgorod. Scandinavian royalty would intermarry with Russian princes and princesses.
After the great schism, Novgorod struggled from the beginning of the 13th century against Sweden, Denmark, and German crusaders. During the Swedish-Novgorodian Wars, the Swedes invaded lands where some of the population had earlier paid tribute to Novgorod. The Germans had been trying to conquer the Baltic region since the late 12th century. Novgorod went to war 26 times with Sweden and 11 times with the Livonian Brothers of the Sword. The German , along with Danish and Swedish feudal lords, launched a series of uncoordinated attacks between 1240 and 1242. Novgorodian sources mention that a Swedish army was defeated in the Battle of the Neva in 1240. The Baltic German campaigns ended in failure after the Battle on the Ice in 1242. After the foundation of the castle of Vyborg in 1293 the Swedes gained a foothold in Karelia. On 12 August 1323, Sweden and Novgorod signed the Treaty of Nöteborg, regulating their border for the first time.
In the 15th century, Novgorod faced significant struggles with Famine, which lasted for a decade in the mid-15th century. This scarcity had profound implications for the population and the city's stability during that time, including its downfall. Novgorod was a hub for trade, attracting German merchants in substantial numbers, around 200 German merchants resided in the trade city in the 1430s, comprising about 1% of the total population of Novgorod at that time. The interactions between these merchants and the local population contributed to the nature of Novgorod during that time, influencing its economic prosperity and cultural diversity.
The city's downfall occurred partially as a result of its inability to feed its large population, making it dependent on the Vladimir-Suzdal region for grain. The main cities in the area, Moscow and Tver, used this dependence to gain control over Novgorod. Eventually Ivan III forcibly annexed the city to the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1478. The was dissolved and a significant part of Novgorod's aristocracy, merchants and smaller landholding families was deported to central Russia. The Hanseatic League kontor was closed in 1494 and the goods stored there were seized by Muscovite forces.
During the Time of Troubles, Novgorodians submitted to Sweden troops led by Jacob De la Gardie in the summer of 1611. The city was restituted to Muscovy six years later by the Treaty of Stolbovo. The conflict led to further depopulation: the number of homesteads in the city decreased from 1158 in 1607 to only 493 in 1617, with the Sofia side described as 'deserted'.Russia's Foreign Trade and Economic Expansion in the Seventeenth Century: Windows on the World J.T. (2025). 9789004138964, Brill. ISBN 9789004138964 (1999). 9785867891008, Русско-Балтийский информационный центр БЛИЦ. ISBN 9785867891008 Novgorod only regained a measure of its former prosperity towards the end of the century, when such ambitious buildings as the Cathedral of the Sign and the Vyazhischi Monastery were constructed. The most famous of Muscovite patriarchs, Patriarch Nikon, was active in Novgorod between 1648 and 1652. The Novgorod Land became one of the Old Believers' strongholds after the Schism. The city remained an important trade centre even though it was now eclipsed by Arkhangelsk, Novgorodian merchants were trading in the Baltic cities and Stockholm while Swedish merchants came to Novgorod where they had their own trading post since 1627. (1999). 9785867891008, Русско-Балтийский информационный центр БЛИЦ. ISBN 9785867891008 Novgorod continued to be a major centre of crafts which employed the majority of its population. There were more than 200 distinct professions in 16th century. Bells, cannons and other arms were produced in Novgorod; its silversmiths were famous for the skan' technique used for religious items and jewellery. Novgorod chests were in widespread use all across Russia, including the Tsar's household and the northern monasteries. (1999). 9785867891008, Русско-Балтийский информационный центр БЛИЦ. ISBN 9785867891008
The Novgorod Kremlin, traditionally known as the Detinets, also contains the oldest palace in Russia (the so-called Chamber of the Facets, 1433), which served as the main meeting hall of the archbishops; the oldest Russian bell tower (mid-15th century), and the oldest Russian clock tower (1673). The Palace of Facets, the bell tower, and the clock tower were originally built on the orders of Archbishop Euphimius II, although the clock tower collapsed in the 17th century and had to be rebuilt and much of the palace of Euphimius II is no longer standing. Among later structures, the most remarkable are a royal palace (1771) and a bronze monument to the Millennium of Russia, representing the most important figures from the country's history (unveiled in 1862).
Outside the Kremlin walls, there are three large churches constructed during the reign of Mstislav the Great. St. Nicholas Cathedral (1113–1123), containing frescoes of Mstislav's family, graces Yaroslav's Court (formerly the chief square of Novgorod). The Yuriev Monastery (one of the oldest in Russia, 1030) contains a tall, three-domed cathedral from 1119 (built by Mstislav's son, Vsevolod, and Kyurik, the head of the monastery). A similar three-domed cathedral (1117), probably designed by the same masters, stands in the Antoniev Monastery, built on the orders of Antony, the founder of that monastery.
There are now some fifty medieval and early modern churches scattered throughout the city and its surrounding areas. Some of them were blown up by the Nazis and subsequently restored. The most ancient pattern is represented by those dedicated to Saints Pyotr and Pavel (on the Swallow's Hill, 1185–1192), to Annunciation (in Myachino, 1179), to Assumption (on Volotovo Church, 1180s) and to St. Paraskeva-Piatnitsa (at Yaroslav's Court, 1207). The greatest masterpiece of early Novgorod architecture is the Nereditsa Church (1198).
In the 13th century, tiny churches of the three-paddled design were in vogue. These are represented by a small chapel at the Peryn Chapel (1230s) and St. Nicholas' on the Lipnya Islet (1292, also notable for its 14th-century frescoes). The next century saw the development of two original church designs, one of them culminating in St Theodor's church (1360–1361, fine frescoes from 1380s), and another one leading to the Savior church on Ilyina street (1374, painted in 1378 by Feofan Grek). The Savior' church in Kovalevo (1345) was originally frescoed by masters, but the church was destroyed during the war. While the church has since been rebuilt, the frescoes have not been restored.
During the last century of the republican government, some new churches were consecrated to Saints Peter and Paul (on Slavna, 1367; in Kozhevniki, 1406), to Christ's Nativity (at the Cemetery, 1387), to St. John the Apostle's (1384), to the Twelve Apostles (1455), to St Demetrius (1467), to St. Simeon (1462), and other saints. Generally, they are not thought to be as innovative as the churches from the previous period. Several shrines from the 12th century (i.e., in Opoki) were demolished brick by brick and then reconstructed exactly as they used to be, several of them in the mid-fifteenth century, again under Archbishop Yevfimy II (Euthymius II), perhaps one of the greatest patrons of architecture in medieval Novgorod.
Novgorod's conquest by Ivan III in 1478 decisively changed the character of local architecture. Large commissions were thenceforth executed by Muscovite masters and patterned after cathedrals of Moscow Kremlin: e.g., the Savior Cathedral of Khutyn Monastery (1515), the Cathedral of the Mother of God of the Sign (1688), the St. Nicholas Cathedral of Vyaschizhy Monastery (1685). Nevertheless, the styles of some parochial churches were still in keeping with local traditions: e.g., the churches of Myrrh-bearing Women (1510) and of Saints Boris and Gleb (1586).
In Vitoslavlitsy, along the Volkhov River and the Myachino Lake, close to the Yuriev Monastery, a museum of wooden architecture was established in 1964. Over twenty wooden buildings (churches, houses and mills) dating from the 14th to the 19th century were transported there from all around the Novgorod region.
11,400 graves of the German 1st Luftwaffe Field Division are found at the war cemetery in Novgorod, and 1,900 soldiers of the Spanish Blue Division are buried there. de:Kriegsgräberstätte Nowgorod
The city has direct railway passenger connections with Moscow (Leningradsky Rail Terminal, by night trains), St. Petersburg (Moscow Rail Terminal and Vitebsk Rail Terminal, by ), Minsk (Belarus) (Minsk Passazhirsky railway station, by night trains) and Murmansk.
The city's former commercial airport Yurievo Airport was decommissioned in 2006, and the area has now been redeveloped into a residential neighbourhood. The still existing Krechevitsy Airport does not serve any regular flights since mid-1990s although there is a plan to turn Krechevitsy into a new operational airport by 2025. The nearest international airport is St. Petersburg's Pulkovo Airport, some north of the city.
|
|
